(British physicist, mathematician and brewer born in Salford Lancashire was a brilliant experimenter and scientist who studied the nature of heat and laid the foundations to thermodynamics and kinetic theory through a number of pioneering discoveries and initiatives).

James Prescott Joule was born on New Bailey Street, Salford near Manchester on 24^th December 1818 son of Benjamin and Alice Prescott and was one of five children. His father was a wealthy brewer a business which he succeeded to later in his life. He was mostly home-schooled by his aunt and later studied arithmetic and geometry under John Dalton a famous chemist at the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. He later studied under the famous scientist and lecturer John Davies.

Slightly deformed, with symptoms of spinal problem, Joule started working in his father’s office at the age of 15 where he acquired an interest in science and came to to appreciate the relationships between the temperatures and pressures of gases, between pumping and heating, simply by observing the brewery in operation. Interest to note this was similar to Priestley who studied the properties of carbon dioxide in a brewery. Joule was driven by a powerful love of experimental investigations and was an outstanding experimenter.

Joule studied twice a week under John Dalton then president of the Manchester Philosophical Society from 1817 to 1844. Dalton was largely responsible in imbuing Joule love of experimentation. When he was 19 years of age Joule converted one of his father’s rooms into a laboratory and constructed an electro-magnetic engine and published his first scientific paper. He submitted his first findings for publication to William Sturgeon’s ‘Annals of Electricity’.

In 1840 he replaced the brewery’s steam engines with electric motor and achieved greater efficiencies. In 1841 he carried out an experiment to establish the relationship between electrical resistance and heat in a conductor this became known later as Joule’s first law.

In 1843 Joule announced his discovery what became the first law of thermodynamics *(see below) which related the relationship between energy and work. In 1844 he measured the ratio of work needed to compress a gas to the heat of 4.27 joules/calorie. In 1845 Joule reported an experiment using a paddle wheel (see the two diagrams below) to understand the conservation of energy. He proposed that in the experiment mechanical energy was converted into heat emery and this later became known as the ‘Law of Conservation of Energy’.

By 1849 he showed the indestructibility of energy – the conservation of energy, the mechanical equivalent of heat and the existence of absolute zero. He provided the foundation for mathematicians to develop the theory of heat and the importance of efficiency of heat engines on their working temperatures.

He did not need the prestige of being a university professor to promote his discoveries to the world of science. For example in 1847 at the age of 28 he presented a lecture explaining his discovery of the laws of the conservation of energy at St. Ann’s Church, Manchester.

He read papers at the British Association at Cork (Ireland) in 1843, at Cambridge in 1845 and Oxford in 1847. Before he reached the age of 30 he was elected to honorary membership of the Royal Academy of Science at Turin and the Royal Society.

In 1854 he sold the brewery and moved to Oak Fields, Whalley Range. South Manchester and continued to work for long hours and paid little attention to his health. In 1861 he moved again to Thorncliffe, Old Trafford. Throughout his research he attracted criticisms from neighbours about the noise of his experimental engines.

He had met William Thomas also known as Lord Kelvin in 1847 at one of his presentations at the British Association in Oxford and later worked closely with him making many important discoveries including the Joule-Thomson effect – namely measuring the temperature changes when forcing a gas or liquid through a valve kept insulated so that no heat is exchanged with the environment and the concept of absolute zero. They also further improved the efficiency of steam engines especially for marine use. The two men laid the foundations of kinetic theory including the velocities of molecules through air. They worked together for over ten years. He also worked closely with Lyon Playfair who was a strong advocate of technical education (See biography on this website).

He often suggested that his theories linking heat and mechanical work would show that the water at the bottom of water falls would be higher than at the top and he with others to visit the Niagara to verify this finding.

In 1878 he received a civil list pension of £200 per annum from the British government in recognition of his services to science.

Joule achieved ground breaking discoveries over a period of forty years and is now recognised for this by the adoption of the Joule the S.I. physical unit of work/energy.

Joule died on 11^th October 1889 and buried in Sale at the age of 70 years. The gravestone is inscribed with his 1878 measurement of the mechanical equivalent of heat namely 772.55 a figure which is very close to todays’ value again showing his brilliance as a researcher (Se diagram below). A statue of him by Alfred Gilbert is placed at the entrance of Manchester Town Hall opposite to John Dalton (See diagram below). A pub located in Sale ‘The J P Joule is named after him and the family brewery now exists in Market Drayton.

Honours: Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) 1850. RS Medal 1852, Albert Medal (RS) 1880, Copley Medal 1870 and a number of honorary degrees.

President of Manchester Lit and Phil Society 1860. President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1872.

Key:

• When heat is converted to work, the process is never totally efficient, e.g. when steam drives a piston, most of the heat energy in the steam is converted to mechanical energy but some is wasted heating up the sides of the cylinder. The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy used in doing work will be equal to the amount of work done – that energy cannot be created or destroyed.

References:

J P Joule. ‘On Matter, living force, and heat’. Lecture given in 1847, reprinted in S.G. Brush. ‘Kinetic Theory’ Volume 1. ‘The Nature of Gases and of Heat’. New York: Pergamon Press. 1965.

Joule. J.P. ‘The Scientific Papers of James Prescent Joule’. London. Dawson’s. 1965.

Bottomley, J.T. ‘James Prescott Joule’. Nature. 26. Pages 617-20. 1882.

Cardwell, D. S. L. ‘James Joule: A Biography’. MUP. ISBN 0719034795. 1991.

Fox, R. ‘James Prescott Joule 1818-1889’. In J. North. ‘Mid-19^th Century Scientists’. Elsevier. ISBN 0-7190-3479-5. 1969.

Steffens. H. J. ‘James Prescott Joule and the Concept of Heat’. Watson. ISBN 0-88202-170-2. 1979.

(James Brindley a pioneer in canal building and a brilliant civil engineering designed a number of important canals and made a number of inventions. He played a significant role in developing the way canals were built during the Industrial Revolution transforming the British landscape and helping to unlock a new aspect of the Industrial Revolution).

James Brindley was born at Tunstead, near Buxton, Derbyshire. He moved with his family to Leek to farm as a labourer. In his spare time he carved model windmills with a small pocket knife which were then geared to turn a paddle wheel which highlighted his innate practical ability. In 1733 he was apprenticed for seven years to a wheelwright Abraham Bennett who lived in Sutton near Macclesfield. Bennett was not a good master spending most of his time drinking and neglecting his duties to the apprentice Brindley. As a result he learnt very little but gradually started teaching himself having to carry out emergency repairs whilst Bennett was absent. In the autumn of 1735 a small silk mill at Macclesfield and owned by Michael Daintry was damaged and Bennett allowed Brindley carry out the repairs. He impressed the mill superintendent James Milner who predicted that Brindley would become a gifted craftsman. With Milner’s support and encouragement after he finished the Daintry Mill other mill owners approached him and this work expanded both in scale and range. People often asked him how he had become a good worker and often said ‘it came natural-like’ and he was called ‘the Schemer’. Bennett at first thought Brindley was a bungler in-spite of not supporting him but soon realised Brindley was a very skilled and became Bennett’s right hand man after the work for Daintry’s mill and as a result this saved Bennett’s business which ten gained its professional reputation. He remained with Bennett after his apprenticeship ended, running the business until his employer’s death.

He was approached in 1750 by the brothers Wedgewood John and Josiah who were operating a small pottery business near Stoke but were struggling in getting sufficient powdered flint an essential material for the pottery. Brindley then built mills which could produce flint powder at Burlsem located near Leek. The following ten years he worked on a number of water and wind mills and became interested in steam engines and subsequent installed several atmospheric engines. Josiah Wedgewood invited Brindley to join the Lunar Society (see website)

As his reputation grew he was approached by John Heathcote owner of the Clifton collieries near Manchester to drain his mines which were flooding and that the traditional methods at that time were not effective. This was his most ambitious project when he created a drainage scheme  that took water from the River Irwell through an underground tunnel over 731 metres long that ran under the river to drive an overshot wheel, which then pumped out the mine. This achievement highlighted his brilliance at engineering skills, knowledge of hydraulic problems and innovation

He also built five tunnels and a number of aqueducts at Harecastle, Hermitage, Barnton, Saltenford, Preston-on-the Hill and Barton. Harefield tunnel was not completely finished until 1777 five years after Brindley’s death and was at the time the longest man-made tunnel on the world being approximately 2,750 metres. The quality and scope of his work catapulted him into a national figure. Eventually he became a rich person and in his will left £7,000 a considerable sum in those days in-spite of money owed to him by the Duke of Bridgewater estate and other sponsors. Barton is shown below.

Brindley suffered from diabetes throughout his life and this coupled with his incredible workloads resulted in his final illness whilst surveying the Trent and Mersey canal at Froghall and subsequent death at the age of 56. He is buried at St James, Newchapel Staffordshire.

Below are some achievements of James Brindley:

1716 Born at Tunstead, Derbyshire.

1726 Brindley family moved to Leek.

1733 Apprenticed to Bennett.

1737 Completes machinery of paper –mill for Bennett who realises what an excellent apprentice he has.

1742 He starts business as a millwright in Leek.

1750 Opens workshop at Burslem and in 1752 builds Leek Mill and starts Clifton Hydraulic Power Scheme.

1752 Constructs Leek Mill and Clifton Power Scheme.

1756 Builds a steam engine at Little Fenton and in 1758 patents a steam engine.

1758 Designed windmill to grind flint for Joseph Wedgewood. Patents design for a steam engine boiler.

1759 Partnership with Duke of Bridgewater begins.

1761 Barton Aqueduct opens to traffic.

1762 Surveys for the Chester Canal and Branch Canal to Stockport carried out.

1763 Provides advice on the Lower Avon Navigation improvements.

1764 Supervises construction of Bridgewater Canal.

1765 Appointed Engineer to the Calder and Hebble Navigation.

1766 Starts work on the Grand Trunk Canal.

1767 Surveys for Bradford, Rochdale and Stockton and Darlington Canals carried out.

1768 and 1769 Surveys for the Leeds and Liverpool, Leeds and Selby and Oxford canals carried out.

1770 Draws up plans for the Thames navigation improvements.

1771 The construction of the Chesterfield Canal starts

1772 Survey for the Lancaster Canal. Died on 27^th September.

References:

Bode, H. ‘James Brindley. An illustrated life of James Brindley 1716-1772.’ Shire Publications Ltd. ISBN 0 85263 485 4. Lifelines series 14. 1992.

Boucher, C. T. G. ‘James Brindley Engineer, 1716-1772.’ Goose and Son.

Evans, K. M. ‘James Brindley, Canal Engineer – a New Perspective.’ ASIN B00LUVLMU0. Churnet Valley Books (Bath Street, Leek). 1998.

Halward, L. ‘Famous British Engineers.’ The Scientific Book Club.

Smiles, S. ‘James Brindley and the Early Engineers.’1864. Reprinted by Hanse. ISBN 9783744662192.

The Brindley Mill, a working water-driven mill restored as a tribute to him and containing the James Brindley Museum is located close to the centre of Leek in Staffordshire on the A552 between Macclesfield and Leek.

Brindleyplace in Birmingham is named after James Brindley and statues of him exist in the Coventry Basin and Etruia workshops across the Caldon Canal at Stoke-on-Trent.